Research Focus
This project investigates the role played by maternal guilt in employment and childbearing in the Italian context.
Background
For the past few decades, Italian society has been struggling with low levels of female labor force participation (ISTAT, 2020a) and “lowest-low” fertility rates (Eurostat, 2021). Sociological and economic research documents how Italian women are considerably less likely to be employed than their European counterparts (Dotti Sani & Scherer 2018). It also shows how family life negatively affects Italian women’s employment status, earnings, and pensions (Dotti Sani 2015; Dotti Sani & Luppi 2020).
The puzzle
Economic theory predicts that the lower engagement of Italian women in the labor market would be accompanied by higher levels of fertility (Becker & Lewis 1974). In contrast (and paradoxically) the country’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) dropped from 2.4 children per woman in 1960 to 1.19 in 2019 (excluding migrant women) (Eurostat, 2021), leading to a situation that scholars refer to as the “demographic trap” (Mencarini & Vignoli 2018).
Contrary to countries that managed to achieve sustainable levels of fertility and female employment, such as the Nordic countries or France (Eurostat, 2021), Italy is one of the European countries where women work less and have fewer children, indefinitely struggling with a state of “unstable equilibrium” (Esping-Andersen 2009) that is problematic from a demographic perspective and also for the achievement of societal gender equality.
Question
What makes reconciling labor market participation and the achievement of sustainable fertility so difficult in the Italian context?
Contribution
Much research has identified the lack of family policies as a major culprit for Italy’s paradoxically low levels of female employment and fertility (Brilli et al., 2016; Del Boca et al., 2004).
Instead, the MatGuilt project provides an original contribution to the field by investigating the role played by cultural and normative factors in the Italian low female employment / low fertility paradox. Specifically, the project focuses on a critical yet understudied feeling: maternal guilt.
Maternal guilt is defined as mothers’ feelings of inability to live up to contemporary cultural ideals of the “good mother”, which set overly high standards in terms of maternal physical, psychological, and intellectual dedication toward children. The impossibility of conforming to the “myth of motherhood” results in the feeling of maternal guilt (Sutherland, 2010). Most studies on maternal guilt have been carried out in the US (Sutherland, 2010; Seagram & Daniluk, 2002), while very little research has explored maternal guilt in Italy (Collins, 2019).
This project hypothesizes that the idealization of motherhood and the consequential feelings of maternal guilt are highly relevant and likely to have a profound impact on Italian mothers’ labor market and reproductive behavior. In terms of employment, guilt might lead mothers to cut down their working efforts, hours, and aspirations, or drop out of the labor market in an attempt to live up to the motherhood myth. In terms of childbearing, women might decide to limit or forgo their fertility to minimize the guilt that would derive from not conforming to the ideal motherhood standard.
Thus, the premise of the MatGuilt project is that debunking motherhood ideals may be a critical step toward higher levels of female employment and higher fertility.
Research Objectives
To assess the relationship between maternal guilt and employment and fertility, MatGuilt poses three main research objectives, which come together in the form of three working packages described in detail below.
1) To conceive a measurement of maternal guilt and identify motherhood ideals in Italy, a context for which very little empirical evidence is available.
2) To examine the relationship between maternal guilt and women’s preferences and behavior concerning: a) labor market participation and b) childbearing and fertility intentions.
3) To explore whether remote working – a way of working that gained popularity during the COVID-19 pandemic – influences maternal guilt and whether it could become an institutionalized tool to ease work-family reconciliation, eventually supporting fertility and fostering female employment.
Design
Work Package 1: The measurement of maternal guilt and the myth of motherhood
The goal of WP1 is to contribute to the understanding of maternal guilt, and its relationship with cultural ideals of what it means to be a “good mother” (Sutherland, 2010). The package aims to identify the presence and salience of maternal guilt in the Italian context, study its individual and societal determinants, and its relationship with motherhood ideals. To answer these questions, WP1 provides a measurement of maternal guilt and examines the characteristics of idealized motherhood in the Italian context by conducting an online survey targeted to mothers and women of childbearing age, i.e., between 20 and 50 years old. The second task of WP1 will be to portray the “motherhood myth” in the Italian context by relying on a conjoint survey experiment. Overall, WP1 will provide i) a measurement of maternal guilt in the Italian context, ii) the attributes characterizing good motherhood, and iii) the links between the two among different categories of respondents.
Work Package 2: To explore the nature of the relationship between maternal guilt, employment, and childbearing decisions
First, we seek to investigate whether guilt, as measured in WP1, has negative repercussions on mothers’ work – in terms of participation in the labor market but also working hours and career aspirations – acting therefore as a “straight jacket” on mothers’ choices and behaviors (Aarntzen et al., 2019). Second, we argue that guilt might account for part of Italian women’s hesitation toward the achievement of (higher-order) fertility. Thus, our second research question is whether women and mothers who experience more vividly the clash between normative notions of “motherhood” and “worker” will be less likely to plan (additional) children even if they might desire them. These questions will be addressed using an online survey targeted at women and mothers (introduced in WP1).
Work Package 3: Remote work and maternal guilt: insights from the pandemic
Leveraging on the unique experience offered by the application of remote work during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, WP3 asks whether remote work can become an institutionalized tool to ease work-family reconciliation, unburdening mothers of their sense of guilt and ultimately support both their presence in the labor market and their fertility intentions. Relying on a combination of qualitative research techniques, WP3 explores in depth whether and how remote work affects: (1) maternal guilt, (2) mothers’ career aspirations, (3) work-life arrangements, and (4) fertility plans. In-depth individual interviews will be conducted with around 50 mothers who experienced the shift from working on-site to working from home during the pandemic to explore their perspectives, behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions on the four issues mentioned above. To include the point of view of all agents involved, 10 additional semi-structured interviews will be conducted with employers and people responsible for welfare and working arrangements in the investigated organizations, who will be asked to provide their perspective on work productivity and ambition of female workers.
Team
Giulia Dotti Sani (Principal Investigator) is an Associate Professor of Sociology in the Department of Social and Political Sciences at the University of Milano. Her main research interests are the sociology of the family and women’s employment. She also works on public opinion and political participation from a comparative perspective. Her works appear in international peer-reviewed journals such as the European Sociological Review, the Journal of Marriage and Family, and Sex Roles. Link to personal webpage.
Nevena Kulic (Responsible for WP1) is an Associate Professor of Sociology in the Department of Political and Social Sciences at the University of Pavia. Her research is centered on the topics of social stratification, educational inequality, women in the labor market and education, intra-household dynamics, and adult and child well-being. Her work was published in journals such as the Annual Review of Sociology, the European Sociological Review, Sociology and Work, Employment and Society. She has also worked in scientific and policy institutes and universities, as well as consulting for international organizations such as Eurofound and UNDP.
Gemma Scalise (Responsible for WP3), PhD in Sociology, is an Associate Professor in Economic Sociology at the University of Milan Bicocca. She is a member of the Editorial Board of the journal Sociology and Principal Investigator of “CITILab Project: Compound inequalities and labour market outsiders“. Her works appear in international peer-reviewed journals such as European Societies, Journal of European Social Policy, European Journal of Industrial Relations, and South European Society and Politics. Link to full bio.
Anne-Marie Jeannet is an Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Milan. She studies how changes in the social structure, such as deindustrialization or immigration, alter political life. She is interested in how the public perceives these social phenomena and the role of family and community in shaping people’s responses to these occurrences. She is currently the principal investigator of “Deindustrializing Societies and the Political Consequences” (DESPO), a project funded by an ERC Starting Grant.
Maria Stoicescu is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Department of Political and Social Sciences at the University of Pavia. She earned her PhD in 2023 from the Department of Sociology at the University of Bucharest, Romania. In previous research, she examined online dating via Tinder in terms of gender differences, moral careers, vocabularies of motive, temporal agency, and emotion work. Her research has been published in peer-reviewed journals such as Sociological Research Online, Sociologie Românească, and Social Psychology Quarterly.
Cristina Burini is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Department of Sociology and Social Research at the University of Milan Bicocca. She earned her PhD in 2023 from the Department of Political Sciences at the University of Perugia. In 2022, she was a visiting PhD student at the Urban School of Sciences Po in Paris. She is interested in urban governance, welfare and social policy, labour market inclusion and inequality in cities
Natalia Soboleva, PhD in Sociology, is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Department of Social and Political Sciences at the University of Milano. Her main research interests include gender equality and gender role attitudes. She coordinated data collection in Russia for European Values Study as a Principal Investigator and is a member of the editorial board of European Values Series. Her works appear in international peer-reviewed journals such as Journal of Happiness Studies, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy.
Carola Natali is a graduate student at the Department of Social and Political Sciences at the University of Milan, where she is currently working on her final dissertation in collaboration with the Matguilt project. She is pursuing a master’s degree in Corporate Communication with a thesis on maternal guilt.
Output
Mothers in Science initiative – Overcoming Mom Guilt: The Science, Causes
Articles
Publications
2026
Dotti Sani, G. M., Kulic, N., Soboleva, N., & Stoicescu, M. (2026). “The feeling that’s always there”: Prevalence and correlates of parental guilt in Italy. Journal of Family Research, 38, 363–384. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-1472
Conference presentations
2024
Maria Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic, Anne Marie Jeannet, and Giulia Dotti Sani. “Motherhood Ideals in Italy Between Individual and Societal Preferences: A Conjoint Experiment”. 4th Workshop on Experimental Sociology (11-12 September 2024, online).
Giulia Dotti Sani. “Introducing the MatGuilt Project: Maternal guilt: Measurement, correlates, and policy solutions in the Italian context”. Doctoral School in Sociology and Social Research Seminar Series, University of Trento, 7 December 2024.
2025
Giulia Dotti Sani, Natalia Soboleva. “Parental Guilt and Career Aspirations: A Hidden Barrier for Mothers in the Italian Labor Market?” IX Convegno SISEC PAVIA 2025. Università degli studi di Pavia, 29 gennaio – 1 febbraio 2025.
Maria Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic, Anne Marie Jeannet, and Giulia Dotti Sani. “Motherhood Ideals in Italy Between Individual and Societal Preferences: A Conjoint Experiment” IX Convegno SISEC PAVIA 2025, Università degli studi di Pavia, 29 gennaio – 1 febbraio 2025.
Gemma Scalise e Cristina Burini. “Nuovi equilibri post-pandemici: madri e senso del lavoro ibrido”. IX Convegno SISEC PAVIA 2025. Università degli studi di Pavia, 29 gennaio – 1 febbraio 2025.
Giulia Dotti Sani & Natalia Soboleva. “Parental Guilt and Fertility Intentions: Gender Inequality Among Parents and Childless Individuals in Italy”. Conference “Gender Inequalities, Fertility, and the Future of Family Demography: Intersectionality in an Era of Family Complexity”. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (MPIDR), Rostock, Germany, 19-21 March, 2025.
Giulia Dotti Sani & Natalia Soboleva. “Parental Guilt and Career Aspirations: A Hidden Barrier for Mothers in the Italian Labor Market?”. RC28 Spring meeting, 25-27 March 2025, University of Milan.
Natalia Soboleva, Maria Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic & Giulia Dotti Sani. “Parental Guilt in Italy: Measurement and Correlates”. RC28 Spring meeting, 25-27 March 2025, University of Milan.
Natalia Soboleva, Maria Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic & Giulia Dotti Sani. “Parental Guilt in Italy: Measurement and Correlates”. 14th LCSR International Workshop “Recent Advances in Comparative Study of Values”, HSE University, Moscow. April 14-17 2025.
Natalia Soboleva, Maria Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic, Giulia Dotti Sani. “Parental Guilt in Italy: Measurement and Correlates”. ESRA 2025 Conference – Utrecht University, 14th – 18th July 2025.
Nevena Kulic, Maria Stoicescu, Anne Marie Jeannet, and Giulia Dotti Sani. “What makes the ideal mother in Italy? An experimental analysis of personal preferences and societal expectations”. ESRA 2025 Conference – Utrecht University, 14th – 18th July 2025
Gemma Scalise & Cristina Burini. “Making Sense of Hybrid Work. Italian Mothers Renegotiating Working Life”. 23rd ESPAnet Annual Conference 27-29 August 2025, University of Milano.
MatGuilt Project Final Workshop, 06 October 2025, University of Milano
- Giulia Dotti Sani Introduction to the MatGuilt project.
- Nevena Kulic. What makes the ideal mother in Italy? An experimental analysis of personal preferences and societal expectations.
- Natalia Soboleva. “The feeling that’s always there”: Parental guilt and its correlates in the Italian context.
- Giulia Dotti Sani. Does guilt shape employment and fertility? A preliminary assessment.
- Cristina Burini & Gemma Scalise. Hybrid Work, maternal guilt, and the city: Policy frameworks and personal meanings in two Italian urban contexts.
Gemma Scalise & Cristina Burini. “In cerca di senso: madri e lavoro ibrido in due città italiane”. Workshop – Senso, significato e qualità della vita lavorativa, 23/10/2025 – University of Turin.
Giulia Maria Dotti Sani & Natalia Sobolova.. “Parental Guilt and Career Aspirations: A Hidden Barrier for Mothers in the Italian Labor Market?”. International LCSR Autumn Workshop. “15 years of Comparative Studies of Values”, HSE University, St. Petersburg, 27-30 October 2025
Giulia Dotti Sani, Nevena Kulic & Gemma Scalise. “Una sensazione che non passa mai”: senso di colpa e maternità in Italia.” Convegno Fare Ricerca Sociologica sulle Famiglie – Sfide ed Opportunità”, 11-12 December 2025, University of Turin.
2026
Gemma Scalise & Cristina Burini. “In cerca di senso. Lavoro ibrido e maternità in due città italiane”, X Convegno SISEC FIRENZE 28-31 January 2026
Giulia Maria Dotti Sani & Natalia Sobolova. “Who Accepts the Rewarding but Demanding Job? Parents, Guilt and the Paradox of Ambition”. X Convegno SISEC FIRENZE – 28-31 January 2026
Maria Stoicescu, Anne-Marie Jeannet, Giulia Maria Dotti-Sani & Nevena Kulic. “How Men Define an ‘Ideal Mother’: A Conjoint Experiment”. X Convegno SISEC FIRENZE – 28-31 January 2026
Giulia Maria Dotti-Sani, Natalia Soboleva. “Who Accepts the Demanding but Rewarding Job? Parents, Guilt and the Paradoxes of Ambition”. RC28 Spring Meeting, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, 22-24 May 2026
Maria-Valentina Stoicescu, Nevena Kulic, Giulia Dotti Sani, and Anne-Marie Jeannet. “What makes the ideal mother in Italy? An analysis of personal preferences and social expectations”. 2026 Annual Conference of the European Consortium for Sociological Research, Trinity College Dublin, 15-17 June 2026
Giulia Maria Dotti Sani & Natalia Sobolova. “Who Accepts the Rewarding but Demanding Job? Parents, Guilt and the Paradox of Ambition”. 2026 Annual Conference of the European Consortium for Sociological Research, Trinity College Dublin, 15-17 June 2026
Download the MatGuilt Survey Questionnaire here:
Project lifetime: October 2023-September 2025
Funding:
The MatGuilt project is financed by the Italian Ministry for Education under the PRIN 2022 grant scheme (Bando Prin 2022 – Decreto Direttoriale n. 104 del 02-02-2022 – Settore ERC SH3 “The Social World and Its Diversity”).
Photo by Dan Aragón on Unsplash