Executive summary of the master thesis of Chiara Magaletti in Public and Corporate Communication (COM), Università degli Studi di Milano. Academic Year: 2023/2024.
Supervisor: Prof. Alessandro Gandini
Co-supervisor: Prof.ssa Giulia Dotti Sani
Social interactions are crucial for personal development and relationships. Nowadays, these interactions can take place not only face-to-face, as it used to be, but also online. Social media have revolutionized how we communicate, significantly impacting our relationships. Dating websites and apps are now seen as socially acceptable and, according to Hobbs, they are particularly important to modern courtship and sexual activities, that may involve the creation, the sharing and the storing of digital content related to sexuality, such as explicit texts, images, videos, audio messages, songs, stickers, memes or even emojis.
This study, conducted during my stay at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, explores the intersection of technology and sexuality. It is based on the concepts of “digital sexuality“, which is an umbrella term that refers to all sex-related content and activities observable on the internet; the term “technosexual” by Waskul which depict individuals who integrate technology into their sexual experiences, identity, or relationships; the term “sexting”, which generally involves in sending and/or receiving flirty and suggestive messages as well as suggestive, semi-nude, or nude photos and videos through digital media including text messages, social media, and email.
Our study was guided by four main hypotheses. We anticipated that Spanish young adults would demonstrate more open-minded attitudes towards sexting than their Italian counterparts, reflecting perceived cultural differences in progressive views on sexuality. This is due to a perception of greater tolerance for different sexual preferences and relationship structures. We then expected participants to view erotic text messages as more appropriate than erotic photos, considering texts as less invasive and more private. Moreover, we hypothesized that sexting within established relationships would be seen as more acceptable than among singles on dating apps. Lastly, we predicted that sending erotic content would be considered more appropriate for men than for women, reflecting traditional gender stereotypes in sexual expression.
The focus of this study was to understand how the act of exchanging explicit texts and
pictures is perceived in the “early adulthood” of Italian and Spanish, referring to those
between 20 and 35 years old. This age range represents a critical period of identity
formation, relationship development, and sexual exploration, making it particularly relevant for studying attitudes towards sexting. Focusing on the same age range in both countries allows for a more direct comparison of cultural differences without the confounding factor of generational gaps.
In order to do this, we prepared an online questionnaire following the method of “vignette study“. Vignettes are multi-dimensional stimuli consisting of a short, carefully constructed description of a person, object, or situation, representing a systematic combination of characteristics. In this case the vignettes were realized by combining levels on three different dimensions:
- Gender (man or woman);
- Type of content (explicit picture or explicit text);
- Relationship status (in a relationship or single).
The survey develops in two phases: the first of preliminary questions, which were used to allow the randomization of the eight vignettes. In the second phase of the survey, after reading the only vignette proposed, each participant was asked to rate the vignette on a scale from 0, which was associated with ‘completely inappropriate’, to 10, meaning that the action described was found ‘completely appropriate.
One example of the proposed vignette is “Francesco/Francisco is in a romantic relationship with a girl and sometimes the two exchange text messages from erotic content.”
The questionnaire was designed both in Italian and Spanish, giving the participant the
possibility to choose the language they felt more comfortable in. The data were collected during the month of May using Google Forms. Participants completed an anonymous, voluntary questionnaire accessed through a link distributed through various social platforms: such as Instagram, Facebook and WhatsApp, exploiting
direct knowledge and avalanche sampling.
After a deep data cleaning process, the responses that were significant for this research were actually 623. The number of responses received from Italians is slightly higher than that from Spaniards, with 337 Italian responses compared to 285 Spanish ones.
| Nomenclature | Italian answers | Spanish answers |
|---|---|---|
| [man, relationship, text] | 46 | 29 |
| [man, relationship, picture] | 38 | 43 |
| [man, single, text] | 48 | 32 |
| [man, single, picture] | 34 | 41 |
| [woman, relationship, text] | 30 | 30 |
| [woman, relationship, picture] | 55 | 38 |
| [woman, single, text] | 32 | 23 |
| [woman, single, picture] | 54 | 49 |
| total | 337 | 285 |
It was found a notable differences in gender distribution between the two countries. In
Spain, the gender composition was relatively balanced, with women constituting 55.75% of respondents and men 41.46%. The Spanish sample also included a small percentage of participants identifying as “other” (2.44%) or choosing not to disclose their gender (0.35%). In contrast, the larger Italian sample showed a more pronounced gender imbalance. Women represented a significant majority at 69.25% of Italian respondents, considerably higher than in the Spanish sample. Men accounted for 30.15% of Italian participants, a notably smaller proportion compared to Spain. The Italian sample also included a very small percentage (0.30% each) of respondents who either identified as “Other” or did not disclose their gender.
These differences in gender distribution between the two countries’ samples, as well as the disparity in sample sizes, are important factors to consider when interpreting and comparing results, as they may influence the overall findings and potentially reflect differences in recruitment methods or participation rates across genders in each country.
We started with a macro-analysis of the results from the two countries, calculating the mean of appropriateness to obtain a clearer and more comparable overview between the two national contexts. This approach allowed us to identify any significant differences or similarities in the perceptions of appropriateness between Italian and Spanish participants, providing a solid basis for further analysis and interpretation of the results.
We analyzed the impact of each variable on the level of “appropriateness” firstly in Italy and secondly in Spain, starting with the mean of appropriateness for each vignette proposed. Specifically, the average “appropriateness” for the Italian participants is 6.88, whereas for the Spanish participants, it is 7.92. This indicates a notable difference, with the Spanish respondents consistently rating the scenarios higher in terms of appropriateness compared to their Italian counterparts. Such a difference highlights the potential cultural variations in the perception and evaluation of appropriateness between the two groups.
Taking into consideration the variable [man, relationship, picture], it’s clear that, for Spanish people, it is considered more appropriate the fact that a man in a relationship sends to his girlfriend erotic pictures. As a matter of fact, the mean of “appropriateness” for the Spanish young adults that took part in this survey corresponds to 8.95, whilst the Italian counterpart only indicates 7.51.
In the case of the second scenario, [woman, single, picture], the average appropriateness rating in Spain (7.9) is significantly higher than in Italy (4.83). This suggests that people in Spain find it much more appropriate for a woman to send erotic pictures to men they met on a dating app compared to people in Italy.
Generally speaking, for the majority of the scenarios presented the value of “appropriateness” is slightly higher for the Spanish part of the sample collected compared to the Italian ones. This suggests that Spanish respondents might have a more permissive or open attitude towards the behaviors depicted in the scenarios. This confirms our first hypothesis of the open-minded attitudes of Spaniards and could be due to differences in social norms, values, or attitudes towards sexting and related behaviors. Spanish culture might be more progressive or liberal regarding the behaviors analyzed in the scenarios, while Italian culture might be more conservative.
From the research it emerged that the comparison of sexting appropriateness perceptions between Spanish and Italian young adults reveals intriguing cultural differences in attitudes towards digital intimate communication.
From the graph it is evident that, for both Italy and Spain alike, the fact that the person sending the erotic content is in a relationship is a key factor in identifying that action as more “appropriate”. This resonates with our hypothesis that sexting happens within an established relationship is seen as more acceptable, due to factors such as trust and intimacy. However, the gap between relationship and single scenarios is more pronounced in the Italian data, suggesting stronger adherence to traditional relationship values.
Interestingly, Spanish respondents show less distinction between text and picture-based sexting, especially for women, while Italians display a clearer preference for text-based sexting. This could reflect differences in perceived risks associated with image-based sexting or varying levels of comfort with visual sexual self-expression.
This research contributes to our understanding of how technology is reshaping intimate communication and relationships. It highlights the need for society to adapt its norms, education systems, and legal structures to the realities of digital intimacy in the 21st century. The intricacies of these cultural variations underscore the importance of a sophisticated, nuanced approach when examining phenomena such as sexting and digital intimacy across different cultural landscapes. As societies continue to adapt to rapid technological changes, the boundaries of cultural norms surrounding intimacy and sexuality are likely to shift and blur. This fluidity in cultural attitudes highlights the critical need for continuous, up-to-date research in this domain. Only through ongoing study can we hope to accurately capture and understand the dynamic interplay between culture, technology, and intimate behaviors in our increasingly interconnected world. Such research not only enriches our academic understanding but also informs the development of culturally sensitive policies and interventions related to digital sexual expression.
As digital technology continues to evolve, so too will the ways in which people express intimacy and sexuality. This research provides a foundation for understanding these changes, helping to ensure that as we move forward, we do so with a nuanced understanding of the complexities, risks, and potential benefits of digital intimate communication.